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--- ficus_carica_l [2016/04/04 13:34] – andreas
+++ ficus_carica_l [2021/12/20 10:57] (aktuell) – andreas
@@ Zeile 4: / Zeile 4: @@
 [[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200006351]]
-"The complex inflorescence consists of a hollow fleshy structure called the syconium, which is lined with numerous unisexual flowers. The flower itself is not visible from outside the syyconium, as it blooms inside the infructescence. Although commonly referred to as a fruit, the fig is actually the infructescence or scion of the tree, known as a false fruit or multiple fruit, in which the flowers and seeds are borne. It is a hollow-ended stem containing many flowers. The small orifice (ostiole) visible on the middle of the fruit is a narrow passage, which allows the specialized fig wasp Blastophaga psenes to enter the fruit and pollinate the flower, whereafter the fruit grows seeds." [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_fig]]
+"The complex inflorescence consists of a hollow fleshy structure called the [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syconium|syconium]], which is lined with numerous unisexual flowers. The flower itself is not visible from outside the syconium, as it blooms inside the infructescence. Although commonly referred to as a fruit, the fig is actually the infructescence or scion of the tree, known as a false fruit or multiple fruit, in which the flowers and seeds are borne. It is a hollow-ended stem containing many flowers. The small orifice (ostiole) visible on the middle of the fruit is a narrow passage, which allows the specialized fig wasp Blastophaga psenes to enter the fruit and pollinate the flower, whereafter the fruit grows seeds." [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_fig]]
+Ficus carica is a dioecious species pollinated by a specific wasp, Blastophaga psenes L. Male trees produce only figs with pollen and fig wasps (pollen carriers), while female figs produce only seeds. Pollinators are able to discriminate between receptive and non-receptive figs based alone on volatiles. Pentane extracts of non-receptive male and female figs contained mainly sesquiterpenes (like caryophyllene and germacrene D) and benzyl alcohol. Principle compounds found in extracts of receptive male and female figs were linalool, linalool oxides (furanoid and pyranoid), benzyl alcohol, cinnamic aldehyde, cinnamic alcohol, and indol. Moreover, receptive male figs produced benzaldehyde and eugenol. All figs contained the furanocoumarines, angelicin and bergapten. \\
+[Volatile compounds from extracts of figs of Ficus carica., Gibernau, M., Buser, H.R., Frey, J.E., Hossaert-McKey, M., Phytochemistry, 46(2), 1997, 241-244] \\
+[Are olfactory signals sufficient to attract fig pollinators?., Gibernau, M., Hossaert-McKey, M., Frey, J., Kjellberg, F., Ecoscience, 5(3), 1998, 306-311]
 Figs which are intended for drying are harvested when fully ripe, when the water content of the fruit on the tree has already dropped (by 30-50%). Water content of ripe figs is lowered on drying to 33-18%, sugar content rises to 60%. \\
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 [Effect of drying of figs (Ficus carica L.) on the contents of sugars, organic acids, and phenolic compounds., Slatnar, A., Klancar, U., Stampar, F., Veberic, R., Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 59(21), 2011, 11696]
-"In general, aldehydes and terpenes were the major volatile group responsible aroma for peels and pulps in fig fruits. Total aldehydes were higher in pulps than peel in all cultivars. However total terpenes were higher in peel rather than in pulp. Among terpenes, β-caryophyllene were the major volatile compounds found in both peel and pulp. Phenol, 2,6-bis (1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl [BHT: synthetic antioxidant!!] were the second important group responsible for fig aroma presented in both peel and pulp. Among aldehydes, 2-hexanal were found in high proportion only in pulp in all cultivars. The other groups responsible fig aroma were 2-furancaboxaldehyde 5-(hydroxymethyl), benzaldehyde, furfural and germacrene D. α-curcumene, β-bisabolene and β-sesquiphellandrene were determined only in cv. ‘Bursa Siyahi’ peel and pulp and discriminated this cultivar from the others." \\
+"In general, aldehydes and terpenes were the major volatile group responsible aroma for peels and pulps in fig fruits. Total aldehydes were higher in pulps than peel in all cultivars. However total terpenes were higher in peel rather than in pulp. Among terpenes, β-caryophyllene were the major volatile compounds found in both peel and pulp. Phenol, 2,6-bis (1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl [BHT: synthetic antioxidant!!] were the second important group responsible for fig aroma presented in both peel and pulp. Among aldehydes, 2-hexanal were found in high proportion only in pulp in all cultivars. The other groups responsible fig aroma were 2-furancarboxaldehyde 5-(hydroxymethyl), benzaldehyde, furfural and germacrene D. α-curcumene, β-bisabolene and β-sesquiphellandrene were determined only in cv. ‘Bursa Siyahi’ peel and pulp and discriminated this cultivar from the others." \\
 [Volatile compounds determined by HS/GC-MS technique in peel and pulp of fig (Ficus carica L.) cultivars grown in Mediterranean region of Turkey., Gozlekci, S., Kafkas, E., Ercisli, S., Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca, 39(2), 2011, 105-108] [[http://www.notulaebotanicae.ro/index.php/nbha/article/viewFile/6261/6449]]
+Main volatile components of pollinated or non-pollinated figs were 3-hydroxy-2-butanone (acetoin; up to ~36% non-pollinated, ~30% pollinated), butyl acetate (up to ~8% non-pollinated, ~13% pollinated), isoamyl acetate (up to ~8% non-pollinated, ~9% pollinated), hexyl acetate, butane-2,3-diol, and hexanoic acid. Minor olfactorly interesting components were e.g. benzaldehyde, 6-methyl-3,5-heptadiene-2-one, β-cyclocitral, gamma butyrolactone, (E/Z)- and (E/E)-2,4-decadienal, 2,4-dimethylbenzaldehyde, α-ionone, benzylalcohol, 2-phenylethanol, β-ionone, octanoic acid, nonanoic acid, and vanillin. \\
+"Esters especially butyl acetate and isoamyl acetate and ketones particularly 3-hydroxy-2-butanone, could be considered as volatiles fingerprint of figs when ripe." \\
+[Trad, Mehdi, et al. "Does pollination affect aroma development in ripened fig [Ficus carica L.] fruit?" Scientia Horticulturae 134 (2012): 93-99]
 Major volatile compound found in dried figs was benzaldehyde (24.7%), followed by hexanal (23.8%), furfural (9.6%), 3-methyl butanal (5.7%), 2-methyl butanal (4.0%) and pentanal (3.8%). Ethyl acetate (2.9%) was the most abundant ester found in dried figs, along with minor (0.1-0.5%) amounts of ethyl esters of C4/C5 acids. Other components were 2-pentyl furane (2.9%), 2-ethyl furane (0.9%), butyrolactone (2.2%), ethanol (1.1%) and δ-decalactone (0.2%). Pretreatment of figs with ascorbic acid, sulfur dioxide or citric acid decreased significantly the drying time, but had great influence on aroma volatiles by lowering furfural (4.8-5.5%) and making ethyl acetate a major component (19-55%).\\
 [Characterisation of volatiles in dried white varieties figs (Ficus carica L.)., Mujić, I., Kralj, M.B., Jokić, S., Jug, T., Šubarić, D., Vidović, S., Jarni, K., Journal of food science and technology, 51(9), 2014, 1837-1846]
+„The ‘key’ odor compound of dried fig aroma was found to be β-damascenone. Owing to its low detection threshold and minute quantity in fig cultivars, the presence of β-damascenone was furthermore confirmed through GC/MS/MS and GC/TOF-MS. β-Damascenone was identified in variable quantities among fig varieties and their liquors, predominating in Kalamon fig cultivar of Peloponnese region, while its amount was found to be dependent on the postharvest storage time and preservation process of dried figs.“ \\
+Main aroma components were e.g. esters like diethyl succinate (0-4.5%), ethyl dodecanoate (0-11.6%), and ethyl hexadecanoate (2.0-9.7%), the aldehydes benzaldehyde (1.3-5.1%) p-hydroxybenzaldehyde (0.4-2.2%), and vanillin (0.3-3.5%), aromatic acids like benzoic acid (0.4-2.5%), cinnamic acid (0.5-4.4%), and vanillic acid (2.3-16.5%), and phenolics like p-vinylphenol (0.8-2.5%), p-vinylguaiacol (0.8-2.9%), and benzyl salicylate (0.5-3.5%). \\
+[Palassarou, Maria, et al. "Volatile profile of Greek dried white figs (Ficus carica L.) and investigation of the role of β‐damascenone in aroma formation in fig liquors." Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 97.15 (2017): 5254-5270]
+"... 22 compounds were identified as the key aroma compounds and eight of these were evaluated as the most important aroma contributors of Xinjiang dried figs, including heptanal, nonanal, linalool, benzyl benzoate, styrene, eugenol, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, and vanillin. Moreover, three volatile components, including 2-methoxy-4-methylphenol, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol and ortho-guaiacol, were identified as key aroma compounds of dried figs and have not been reported previously." \\
+[Yao, Lingyun, et al. "Characterization of key aroma compounds in Xinjiang dried figs (Ficus carica L.) by GC–MS, GC–olfactometry, odor activity values, and sensory analyses." LWT (2021): 111982]
 ----
-Fig leaf absolute is a dark green solid paste with herbal green odor used formerly in perfumery. "Do not use on any part of the body because of extreme phototoxic effects. The leaves are extracted with petroleum ether and the resulting concrete is washed with alcohol to produce the absolute."
+**Fig leaf absolute**
-[[http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/ab1023861.html]]
+The leaves of Ficus carica are extracted with solvent to obtain a concrete, which is subsequent treated with alcohol. The residue represents a dark green to brownish green viscous liquid of a sweet, green, herbaceous, somewhat woody odor with a mossy undertone. The first distillation range (30-160°C/0.05 Torr) of this fig leaf absolute is the olfactory relevant part - only 1% (!). Main components of this part are hydrocarbons like caryophyllene, α- and β-farnesene, furthermore linalool, benzyl acetate, (Z)-3-hexenyl tiglate, methyl salicylate, β-ionone, and (Z)-3-hexenyl benzoate. Minor components are (Z)-3-hexenyl butyrate, (Z)-3-hexenyl 2-methylbutyrate, methyl benzoate, linalyl acetate, β-cyclocitral, safranal, α-terpineol, benzyl alcohol, geranyl acetate, phenylethanol, β-damascenone, geranylacetone, jasmone, caryophyllene oxide, and cinnamyl acetate e.g. Further minor but olfactory important constituents were pyridines and pyrazines like 2-isobutyl 4-methylpyridine (tobacco-like, green), 2-isobutanoyl 4-methylpyridine, 2-isobutenyl 4-methylpyridine (tobacco-like, bitter, fruity-floral), 2-methoxy 3-isopropylpyrazine, 2-methoxy 3-sec.butylylpyrazine, 2-methoxy 3-isobutylpyrazine e.g. \\
+[Kaiser, R., „New natural products of structural and olfactory interest identified in fig leaf absolute (//Ficus carica L.//).“ Progress in essential oil research (1986): 227-239]
 "Based on sensitization reactions at 5% and strong phototoxic reactions, the Panel concluded that the material should be banned. A RIFM Advisory Letter (RIFM, 1980) was issued to all members stating the potential for induction of skin and phototoxic reactions. As a result, an IFRA Guideline (now renamed a Standard) was issued in October, 1980 (IFRA, 1980), which stated, ‘‘Fig Leaf Absolute should not be used as a fragrance ingredient based on test results of RIFM showing sensitizing and extreme phototoxic potential for this material.’’ A RIFM
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 [Ayoub, N., Singab, A. N., Mostafa, N., & Schultze, W. (2010). Volatile constituents of leaves of Ficus carica Linn. grown in Egypt. Journal of essential oil bearing plants, 13(3), 2010, 316-321]
-{{:ficus_carica.jpg?500}} \\
+{{:ficus_carica.jpg?600}} \\
 Masclef,A., Atlas des plantes de France, vol.3 t.289, (1893) \\
 [[http://plantgenera.org/species.php?id_species=436905]]
+{{http://www.botanische-spaziergaenge.at/Bilder/Lumix_3/P1190860.JPG}} \\
+Ficus carica \\ © Rolf Marschner (2009),
+[[http://botanische-spaziergaenge.at/viewtopic.php?f=417&t=1327| www.botanische-spaziergaenge.at]]